A comparison between practice and theory. 

Valerio Mariani wrote his treatise on miniature-painting at the beginning of the 17th century. Three manuscripts of the treatise have been found so far. The first manuscript was discovered in the Leiden university library, The Netherlands, and is entitled:

Delia Miniatura di Valerio Mariani da Pesaro, Miniatore del Serenissimo Signor Duca d'Urbino, del Signor Capitano Giorgio Maynwaringe inglese, ľ anno del Signore MDCXX in Padoa.

The author traced another manuscript, owned by the Beinecke Library, Yale University, New Haven, USA, entitled: Delia Miniatura del Signore Valerio Mariani da Pesaro, Miniatore del Duca d'Urbino, con aggiunte d'altre cose per l'istessa professione havuta dal Signore D. Antonello Bertozzi, scrittore e miniatore in Padoa, per me Franco Manlio Romano, ľanno MDCXX. This manuscript is extremely similar to the Leiden manuscript. Both seem to be copies from one original which so far has not been traced. A third manuscript entitled: Ricordi di Belli Colori, containing only part of the text of the Leiden and Yale manuscripts, is part of the collection of the Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana 1.

Although little is known about Mariani, we can assume, as is mentioned in the title of the treatise, that Mariani worked for the Duke of Urbino, Francesco Maria II della Rovere (1574-1631) 2. When he came to power in 1574 he was left in a poor financial position caused by the luxurious life-style of his father Guidobaldo II della Rovere. He started his reigning period with a severe policy of economizing and, as a chronicle describes: »The last duke Francesco Maria, after stopping the expenses of Duke Guidobaldo, his father, by ceasing the execution of many arts and famous crafts that there were performed, seeing the dramatic consequences, reconsidered and ordered the foundation of several workshops at his court where he deputed excellent masters of every profession and art 3.« He built a new wing at his palace with a library and art gallery on the first floor and with the workshops at the grond floor, opening to the street.

From 1580 to 1620 the Duke himself noted the names of employees of the workshops, and the payments for provisions and commissions. Among the employees were a sculptor, watchmakers, a worker in ebony, goldsmiths, a miniaturist, a painter and a bookbinder. From these notes we can assume that Valerio Mariani worked for the court of Urbino from 1603 till circa 1618 4. They also present us with a clear image of the organisation and the production of the workshops. The Duke provided his employees with housing, bread and wine, candles, fire wood and a monthly salary »de borsa sua«, from his own purse 5. Every month he paid a  fixed amount of money to the workshops, probably for the provisions as described above. However, the commissions to the workshops were paid seperately and are mentioned as such in the Duke's lists. There we find accurate descriptions of the commissions, their costs in man-hours but also the costs of the materials used. The commissions did not go directly from the Duke to the workshops. There were several »intermediars« who did the negotiations. Each commission was first executed in a drawing or design. The drawing was presented to the Duke and when approved the work could proceed. A collection of these designs made by the workshops can be found in the Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana 6. Here we find drawings of golden and silver objects, sedan chairs, tapestries, and miniatures. Some designs contain notes indicating use of colours, materials and even the necessary workhours for the production of the final product. Beside the living expenses the Duke also paid f or the materials needed by the workshops for his commissions. For example we find a payment for »pelle pecorine e de capretto per il miniatore«, and for »azzurro oltremarino 7.« Another payment mentions grinded gold and linseed oil for the workshops. We also find payments for pieces of marble for the sculptor, linen for the painter and gold and silver for the goldsmith. Especially interesting is a list of pigments and brushes: »Azurro di Spagna; verdetto, giallolino di Fiandra; lacca di grana; smaltino fino di Fiandra; penelli di sedoli con asta; penelli grossi di vano; pennelli mezzani e piccoli; cocciole di madre perla 8.« The above-mentioned materials can be found in a price list in Mariani's treatise and in the treatise itself. This brings us back to the treatise and its writer the miniaturist Valerio Mariani da Pesaro.

Mariani's treatise is clearly written by an artist with great interest in technique and materials. His recipes are accurate and, as well as raditional recipes, many personal »inventions« are given. He was known as »a rare and excellent miniaturist, who did not have an equal in his profession 9.« A contemporary source mentions Mariani as a pupil of Giovanni Maria Boduino, a miniaturist who worked in the region of Friuli and who invented the so-called »miniatura granita«. A technique were the painter created a special effect by painting in very small dots of colour. Mariani also knew this technique and »he surpassed his master in patience and his miniatures were owned by the most important princes of the world«. Both knew the secret of grinding gold »alia persiana«. The gold was used for writing and for miniature-painting and was as stable as the »antico« (goldleaf) 10. Although I have not yet found any miniatures by Boduino it is clear that both Mariani and his master were known for their outstanding technical skills.

The treatise contains recipes for the preparation of pigments and instructions for mixtures and build-up of different types of landscapes, trees, weather conditions etc. The last part of the treatise gives instructions for the painting of portraits. As in the table of contents these chapters are not mentioned, this part was added by Antonello Bertozzi, the miniaturist mentioned in the title of the Yale manuscript.

The pigments described are: »azurro oltremarino; biadetto; verdetto; verde azzurro; giallolino; cenabro; minio; terra lemnia; sangue di drago; terra rossa; terra gialla o ocria; terra dombra; terra negra; sandracca; bruno ďInghilterra; lacca di grana e verzino; giallo de' vasari; giallo santo; biacca; acque verdi; acqua di verzino; acque gialle; indico e tornasole 11.«
Mariani also describes how to grind, temper and conserve colours; which mediums should be used and how to make brushes.

In this study we will look at the interesting and rather unique possibility to compare theory with practice as ca. 40 miniatures by Mariani are known. Mariani's production consisted of two types of miniatures; book illustrations and miniatures framed as small paintings. The book illustrations can be found in the Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, namely the miniatures in the »Vita di Federico da Montefeltro«; the frontpage of »Il Cortegiano« by Baldassare Castiglione; and the miniatures in part of the Purgatorio and Paradiso of the so-called »Dante urbinate 12.« For most of these miniatures drawings are present in the above-mentioned codex with drawings from the workshops. Especially the drawings for the Dante-miniatures are of interest. Each drawing is accompanied by text with exact descriptions of the colours and composition. The text probably served the Duke in creating an idea of the final miniatures 13. These illuminated manuscripts were meant as luxury objects, as most of them already existed in printed editions.

The miniatures framed as small paintings can be found in the collections of the Uffizi and the Galleria Palatina in Florence. For a comparison between theory and practice one of these miniatures is of great importance. This miniature, owned by the Uffizi is signed: »Valerius Marian Pisaurensis fec 14.« It is painted on parchment and has rather large measurements. (45 x 32 cm). It was once stretched on a frame as is clear from the stretching edges which are still present. It shows the Battle of Fabiani, a famous moment of the military career of Federico da Montefeltro who, using the light of the full moon, attacked the army of Giovanni d'Angio by surprise, and won. The miniature is based on one of the miniatures in the Vatican codex of the »Vita di Federico da Montefeltro«. This miniature is smaller (37,2 x 25,3 cm) and much more restricted in style and use of colour. Based on documents it can be dated around 1607 15.

Dating the Uffizi miniature is more difficult. However, the miniature itself provides us with some evidence. The central figure of the flag-bearer can be traced to the »Cappricci« of Jacques Callot, a series of engravings published in 1617, and very popular in Italy 16. Mariani reproduced the flag-bearer in the centre of his miniature. A datum post quam of 1617 is not surprising as the style of the miniature is more developed and mature than the style used in the Vatican miniature. Thus, the Uffizi miniature as a representative of Mariani's fully developed style and technique, provides the ideal material for a comparison between practice and theory.
Studying the miniature with the microscope gives us a  clear idea of Mariani 's technique 17. Comparing the observations thus made with the instructions in the treatise we find many similarities. We will follow Mariani's sequence in painting.

First Mariani says to prepare good pens »which have to be of a goose, durable, round, transparent, and of the right wing. (...). When the pens and very good ink are prepared first you make a sketch with a pencil. (...). When the sketch is finished you will start drawing the things nearby with big pens, and things that are right or more at a distance with the others (...) 18.« Especially in the central part of the miniature the underdrawing made with pencil is clearly visible. The drawing shows a very loose »sketching« style as can be clearly seen in the detail of the kneeling soldier in the centre of the miniature 19.

The same detail shows some lines made with a red- brownish colour in the hand on the head of the soldier and in his helmet. This red-brownish colour might be »terra rossa di Levante, well ground and tempered with gum vinegar arranged with cotton wool in a little vessel the way you make ink, wich looks like a beautiful red pencil 20.« Mariani also recommends the use of turnsole on white parchment: »It is also good to draw on white parchment with turnsole and a pen and you retouch the dark part with watercolour of indigo 21.

Details of Uffizi miniature (also Battle of Fabiano) by Valerio Mariani - a) drummer, b) - c) kneeling soldier

The use of pen and ink can also be traced. Mariani describes a recipe for ink that makes a »beautiful ink of a  violet and good colour«:

For every 30 ounces of strong dry white wine one takes 3 ounces of wrinkled and bruised gallnuts put as an infusion in the above-mentioned wine in 3 or 4 parts, noting the distance from the mouth of the vase to the wine, because it will diminish during the day and you always have to add the same quantity of wine to the vase as there is room for. If it is summer one keeps it in the sun, in the winter near the fire, stirring it every day several times with a little fig branch, and then after 4 or 5 days one adds to this gall-wine two ounces of german vitriol, deep blue and well crushed, also leaving it in the sun, stirring it and again adding the wine that diminishes, keeping it at the increase that the vetriolo gave it. After 4 or 5 days I added half and ounce of gum arabic to it, which has to be clear and well crushed, and when the gum is dissolved in another 3 or 4 days I found the most beatutiful ink of a good and violet colour 22.

Valerio Mariani, Battle of Fabiano, Cotex Urb. Lat. 1765, fol. 32v, Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, Rome

He also says: »Where the dark parts are they have to be retouched with other shadows, but never in a way to form a grid like the irons of a grate do, that one generally puts in a window, but they have to bend and form small points, and in the even darker parts you touch the same shadows again with new ink and thus they appear darker 23.«This we can observe in the drummer. Here both the brownish colour determining contours and shadows, as the dark ink colour in the shadow, seem to be present. The shadows are painted with small parallel touches, like Mariani recommends. Further observations showed a use of pen and ink for shadows and contours in the miniature. The dark violet coloured ink is especially noticable in the soldiers in the background.

In several places the white colour of the parchment itself is used. This can be observed in the white parts of the central group and in the bright surrounding of the moon. In the treatise Mariani explains how to give parchment a basic colour and how to use this colour as a first (lightest) shadow or a middle tone 24. We can assume that he also used the white colour of the parchment. In this case it was the lightest part in the miniature.

Mariani's application of colours is the next step in his working process. In his treatise he describes several ways to make the correct medium. He uses gum arabic in water and, as he says: »if you do not use it quickly it will spoil unless you help it by adding something like alu-men, or something else. But because some colours are changed or spoiled by it, you can use rose-water instead of ordinary water«. He also mentions the possibility of adding camfora, a little »acqua vite« or lavender water. He uses himself a distillation of »rosmariano 25«.

Although in this study we will not go into the preparation of Mariani's pigments, we will look at the way he used his colours. Medieval artists used, as first appears in the 9th century Mappa Clavicula but also in later sources, so-called »concordanze«. These are instructions on combinations and mixtures of colours to create shadows and highlights. In this technique an opaque basic colour was applied on the drawing. On top of this a darker colour was applied for the shadows and contours, this was called: »incidere«. A lighter colour was applied to form the highlights and contours, the so-called: »matizatura«. The concordance did not only provide beautiful combinations of colours but also helped to avoid mixing pigments that were not compatible 26.

Mariani 's treatise does not describe this technique of modelling with (opaque) colours, nor does it prescribe any »concordanze«. If we study Marianis miniature with the microscope it becomes obvious that he is mainly using transparently applied pure colours or mixtures of colours. To reach a final effect he is working with transparent layers, one layer on top of another. This very transparent watercolour technique is clearly different from the »matizatura« technique. Contours and shadows are made with ink or the colours described above, everything still in the stage of the »disegno«. The highlights are made with white lead or a bright colour, and everything is covered with a transparent layer of the colour wanted. This is what Mariani calls a »velatura«. Thus he describes: »After drawing the tree on white or blue parchment, shadowed, and illuminated with leadwhite, one paints on the highlights with broom yellow, making sure that they absorb the colour, then when it is dry, you cover the whole tree with that shade of green that you like and thus the tree will remain coloured with its yellowish and well visible highlights (...) 27.« The trees on the right and left side of the miniature show this technique of »highlighting«. He also uses the technique of a layer of a transparent colour on top of other colours to reach a »sfumato« effect or to unify the colours. The transparent character of his technique is not only noticable by observing his miniature, it is also clear from the way he names his organic greens and yellows: »Aqcue gialle e verdi«. He makes these green and yellow waters from a limited number of organic dye-stuffs like the fruit of the buckthorn picked at the end of October; the flowers of the iris; wild violets and lilies for the greens, and the non-ripe fruits of the buckthorn picked in July and August; turmeric and saffron for the yellows 28.

We will make a last observation. As is mentioned above, Mariani and his master Boduino knew the secret of »grinding gold alla persiana 29«. Studying the miniature, we find that ground gold is used in both the cornice as in the beautiful detail of Duke Federico da Montefeltro on his horse. The small particles of the ground gold, applied on top of a coloured paint-layer, can be distinguished under the microscope. Although Mariani reveals in his treatise many secrets of a miniaturist's technique, his method of grinding the gold »alla persiana« was to remain secret as no mention is made of it.

More research will be done to reveal Mariani's secrets and thus identify more of the methods and materials used. Furthermore, reconstructions of some of the recipes will be made 30.

1. The Leiden manuscript has the signature: Vos, Ger. Gall. 5q,; The Yale manuscript has the signature: Ms. 372, The Rome manuscript: Urb. Lat. 1280.

2. S. S. Melon! Trkulja, I Miniatori di Francesco Maria II della Rovere in: Omaggio ai Delia Rovere, Catalogue, a. c. d. P. Dal Poggetto, Pesaro 1981, pp. 34−38.

3. Biblioteca Oliveriana, Pesaro, Ms. Oliv. 1009, D. Bonamini, Biografie degli Uomini Illustri Pesaresi, c. 290: »L’ultimo Duca Francesco Maria, che avendo prima risecate la grossa spesa del Duca Guidobaldo, suo padre, col far cessar tanti arti e celebri manifatte che qui si professavano, che vedendone in seguito il gravissimo derive, si ricredette e comando he si esigessero sotto la di lui corte varie officine, alle quali deputo maestri in ogni professione ed arte.«

4. Archivio dello Stato Firenze, Fondo Urbino, Classe III, Filza XXII (1580−1610), Classe I, Div. G., Filza CVI (1611−1612).

5. ASF, Fondo Urbino, Ducato d’Urbino Appendice A, Filza 32.

6. Codex Urb. Lat. 1763

7. ASF, Fondo Urbino, Cl. Ill, Filza XXIII, c. 470 r.

8. ASF, Fondo Urbino, Classe III, Appendice, Filza 54.

9. Biblioteca Oliveriana, Pesaro, Ms. 1009: »(…) Valeric Marianida Pesaro, miniatore raro e singolare, che per simile professione non haveva leguale (…)«.

10. S. Lancellotti, L’Hoggidl, Venice 1636, 3th edition (1th edition 1623), vol. II, pp. 309−310: »(…) Valeric Marianifu il suo discepolo e avanzoil maestro di patienza, e delle sue miniature hebbero i maggiori Principi del mondo. (…) Havevanoun segreto di macinarloro alia persiana per miniare, e per iscrivere, che stava saldo come ľantico.«

11. Valerio Mariani, Della Miniatura, c. 3 v.: »Tavola di quanto si contiene«.

12. Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, Roma, Vita di Federico da Montefeltro, signature: Urb. Lat. 1765. II Cortegiano, signature: Urb. Lat. 1767; L. Michelini-Tocci, II Dante Urbinate della Biblioteca Vaticana, Milan 1965, facsimile, signature of the manuscript: Urb. Lat. 365.

13. G. Cozza-Luzzi, II Paradiso Dantesco nei bozzetti di Giulio Clovio, Rome, 1894. Recent research by E. Hermens resulted in the rejection of the attribution of both the drawings and the miniatures to Giulio Clovio. Documentary proof was found to attribute them to Valerio Marianiand his workshop. See: E. Hermens, Valerio Marianida Pesaro, a 17th century Italian miniaturist and his treatise, in: Miniatura, 3, 1993.

14. S. Meloni Trkulja in: »Firenze e la Toscana dei Medici nell’Europa del Cinquecento«, vol. Palazzo Vecchio: Comittenza e Collezionismo Medicei, Catalogue, Florence 1980, pp. 200-205.

15. E. Hermens, op. cit..

16. S. Meloni Trkulja, op. cit., Pesaro 1981, p. 37. For Callot see: T. Schröder, Jacques Callot, Das gesamte Werk, Munchen 1971.

17. Thanks to the friendly cooperation of the Laboratorio del Restauro degli Uffizi and especially to Ezio Buzzegoli who made the microscopic photographs.

18. Valerio Mariani, op. cit., c. 25v−26r: »E necessario primieramente haver le penne buone, a proposito temperate, le quale vogliono essere di oche, dure, ritonde, transparente, e dellala destra. (…) Preparate le penne et ottimo inchiostro si andarä prima schizzando con il piombino quello che si vuol fare, (…) Fornito di schizzare il disegno con il piombino, si cominciara a disegnare le cose piú vicine con penne che rendono grosso, a cosicon le altre quelle cose che tornaranno piu a proposito e piu lontane.«

19. A study with infra-red photographs by E. Buzzegoli, E. Hermens, D. Kunzelmann, is forthcoming.

20. Valerio Mariani, op. cit., c. 30r: (…) »terra rossa di Levante ben macinata e distemprata con aceto gommato et accomodando con il bombagio in un vasetto come si fa linchiostro, che par proprio un bellissimo lapis rosso (…).«

21. Valerio Mariani, op. cit., c. 30r-c. 30v.: »Fa ancora bene a disegnare in carta bianca con il tornasole con la penna e si ritochi nelli scuri con acquarella di endico.«

22. Valerio Mariani, op. cit., c. 31r: »Si prendera per ogni 30 oncie di potente vino bianco garbo, 3 oncie di galia crespa e amaccata in 3 overo 4 parti. Si ponera in infusione in detto vino, segnando ove arriva il vino distante dalla bocca del vaso, acciô che secondo alia giornata va calando, se ne vada giungendo et mettendo sempře la medesima quantita di vino nel vaso ove sara posto. Se sara desiate si terrô al sole, si di verno vicino al ŕuoco, mesticando ogni di piu volte con un legnetto di flco, e poi in capo a quattro o cinque di vi giungerä in detto vino di galia doi oncie di vetriolo di Alemagna ben turchino e ben pisto, lasciando parimente al sóle mesticandolo et giungendoli il vino che cala, mantenendolo al’accrescimento che le fece far il vetriolo. Dopo altri quattro o cinque di li giungevo mezz'oncia di gomma arabica che sia chiara e ben pista, e dissoluta la gomma in altri tré o quattro di ritrovo ľinchiostro bellissimo di color violetto e bono (…).«

23. Valerio Mariani, op. cit., c. 27v: »E dove vanno le parti piu scure vanno ricacciate con altre ombre, ma non mai pero che si atraversino a squadra come sono i ferri dell ferrate che si pongono ordinariamente nelle finestre, ma deono inclinarsi et formare minuti rombi, et ancora tali parti piú scure si ritoccaranno le medesime ombre con novo inchiostro e cosi mostraranno piú scure (…).«

24. Valerio Mariani, op. cit., c. 29v−30r.

25. Valerio Mariani, op. cit., c. 23v−24 r: »Se non si opra presto in breve tempo si corrompe se non si aiuta con porvi dentro qualche cosa come alume di rocca o altro. Ma perche pare che per sua cagione alcuni colori si mutano e si guastano, si opra in scambio di acqua comune acqua rosa et altri. Nella comune mettono un poco di camfora et altri un poco di acqua vité o di spigo, et io ho usato acqua di fiori di rosmarino distillata (…).«

26. A. Wallert, kookboeken en koorboeken, dissertation, Groningen 1991, pp. 3−4.

27. Valerio Mariani, op. cit., c. 45r: »Disegnato 1’arboro in carta bianca o azzurra, ombreggiato, et illuminate con biacca, si tirara sopra i lumi del giallo santo facendole bene prendere il colore, poi che sara asciutto si velara tutto larboro colorito con li suoi lumi gialligni e bene apparenti (…).«

28. V. Mariani, op. cit., c. 18r−19v, c. 20v−21 r. A study on the »Acque gialle e verdi« by E. Hermens and A. Wallert is forthcoming.

29. The grinding of gold for miniature-painting is already described in medieval treatises for example in Cennino Cennini II Libro d’Arte, (ed. D. Thompson, 3th. ed. London I960, p. 102). The meaning of »Alia Persiana« has so far not been found.

30. The reconstructions will be done in the Centraal Laboratorium, Amsterdam, in collaboration with the
Art-historical Department.

  author
Erma Hermens (Leiden), AHVT K 009